Introduction
Protestant Reformers achieved more success than their predecessors due to various factors that facilitated the spread of their 'heresies.' To illustrate this point effectively, it is essential to examine the two most similar movements preceding the Protestant Reformation—the Lollards in 14th-century England and the Bohemian Reformers in 15th-century Bohemia.
Upon further examination of the origins of the movement, this essay will compare the key 'forerunners' of the Protestants, Jan Hus from Bohemia and Wyclif in England, with the Protestant Reformer Martin Luther. It aims to demonstrate the significance of political backing in the initial development of each movement, highlighting that lacking such support could have led to the partial or complete suppression of 'heretical' movements.
Moreover, this paper examines the impact of urbanisation on the Holy Roman Empire and its cultural environment, leading to the establishment of fortified cities that would support the spread of the Protestant movement's 'heretical' beliefs.
Furthermore, this study will explore the significance of universities in safeguarding and spreading the writings of the pioneers and Luther within the context of universities and the Holy Roman Empire as a whole. Lastly, the investigation aims to understand the role of the printing press in the rapid and extensive dissemination of the Reformers' works, which had never been witnessed before, despite not being solely accountable for the movement's initial achievements.
Therefore, this essay contends that the intertwined events and connections among the backing of political figures, the growing urbanisation in cities, the presence and activities of universities, and ultimately, the printing press were the factors that facilitated the widespread success of the Protestant Reformation across Europe.
Support of Political Allies
All three movements initially had the support of political backers who played a crucial role in safeguarding the movements and their leaders. The Western Schism in 1378 had a significant impact on the reputation of the Roman Catholic Church, leading to increased scrutiny of its spiritual and political authority over the laity and their political leaders. The corruption within the Papacy and the Church further fuelled criticism against the institution.
While dissenting voices existed prior to figures like Wyclif and the Lollards in 14th Century England, it was with them that serious challenges to the authority and credibility of the Church began to emerge, resulting in what Lambert describes as the erosion of 'the freedom of papal action'.
This lack of freedom hindered any immediate action against Wyclif until his eventual arrest and execution. Wyclif found support from John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, and the Black Prince’s widow, who defended him against the Roman Church. Luther, on the other hand, received backing from the ruling Duchy-Electors of Saxony, particularly Frederick the Wise. However, the level of protection provided by political figures varied greatly between the movements.
John Gaunt withdrew his support from Wyclif and the Lollards after the Peasant Revolt of 1381, leading to increased persecution and suppression of the movement in England. The Hussites in Bohemia and Moravia resorted to military action against the Catholic Church and Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund after the execution of Jan Hus at the Council of Constance in 1415.
The Moravian Brethren movement and the Protestants also relied on political support for their survival, with Frederick the Wise playing a crucial role in protecting Luther after the Diet of Worms in 1521. Without such backing, Luther's Reformation may not have succeeded.
Political allies were essential for the preservation and defence of each movement, especially during Luther's time.
Urbanisation and Protestantism
Urbanisation resulted in protestant strongholds that could not be easily uprooted. Early into the medieval period, the Rhineland would experience a resurgence in patriotic sentiments for the local community body, usually within the grown cities.
These sentiments felt by the people resulted in the overthrowing of what Moeller describes as city lords, religious or secular. These lords would be replaced by elected councils and city princes. Yet financial and military security within particular cities—combined with fear of internal collapse within the cities—would lead to many cities joining together as confederates, again changing the political landscape.
These cities then placed themselves under the protection of the Roman Empire. Nevertheless, in an effort to solve local disunity, councils and leaders created city oaths, which would be recited by anyone moving to it. The purpose of these oaths was to remind the citizens of the importance of their loyalty and duty to the city as a community.
Bohemia too would experience a similar change, but through migration from those in the Rhineland into Bohemia—bringing with them their culture and governing systems which through their influence the Czech populations would adopt. Both the 14th and 16th centuries would see increasing financial growth through trade and industry.
This resulted in an increase in political influence by cities—partly, through their ability to maintain localised militias instead of relying upon others. This resulted in them becoming free cities and simultaneously weakened the Empire's overarching authority.
For Hus, and Luther—who, like Wyclif, desired to reach the laity foremost—these independent cities were instrumental in the resilience of their messages. City density allowed a greater numerical reach for their words and while Hus and his followers relied upon mostly vernacular promotion, Luther would have the benefit of the printing press, which shall be further addressed later.
Yet, while the positive effect was the same for the Bohemian Reformers and the Protestants, the negative was what limited the former. Loyalty to a city was just as likely to go against the Bohemian Reformers and, in some cases, did as well with the Protestants.
For instance, in the Catholic-dominated city of Überlingen, whose council, opposing the protestants’ reforms, stated that “in order that in our city there be no disunion, no discord…we should always live…faithfully untied in lives, honour and goods…[W]atch[ing] carefully to guard ourselves from poisonous seeds of the new doctrine that it does not take root among us.”
It unsurprising, then, that throughout the Holy Roman Empire, oaths began to show who each city would side with—often emanating the spirit of the Protestant City of Strasbourg (1524), “We in common citizenship will sacrifice our body and blood for the word of God.”
Nevertheless, if the Protestants had to use only verbal rhetoric—as had Hus and the Bohemian Reformers—likely, Luther and other Protestants may have seen similar success in its spread, remaining localised and fractured. Hence, urbanisation was important in both creating politically independent powers outside the control of the Emperor and enabling the city density, which allowed more people to hear the movement's rhetoric.
Universities and the Reformation
Universities also played a similar role within all three movements in the preservation and spread of each movement's thinkers’ ideas, while also contributing personal support. Travel for students and members of universities was not uncommon even from Wyclif's time. Moreover, this facilitated the exchange of information as universities shared ideas and manuscripts. Thus, it was in the universities that anti-scholastic thought began to emerge.
Wyclif, a product of anti-scholastic thought within the University as well as its propagator, had a fundamental impact on the theological underpinnings of the University of Oxford where he was a teacher. Attempts were made, after his execution, within the university to diminish some of his influence by William Courtney, which did somewhat succeed. Nevertheless, Wyclif's works had already spread to the University of Prague in Bohemia, influencing Hus and forming the basis of Hus’ criticisms against the Roman Church.
Additionally, it was Wyclif's works, along with his own, that Hus would be called to denounce at the Council of Constance. Similarly, Luther would be called to defend himself and the works of Hus at the Leipzig Disputation of 1519, which had shaped his own theology and opposition against the Roman Church through the University of Wittenberg.
For Luther, the humanists would be his greatest benefit within the universities. Like Luther, the humanists also rejected the scholastic approach to biblical interpretation. Unlike Luther, Hus, and Wyclif, however, the humanists had never faced Church persecution; instead, they were associated with or came from areas of Church and political power.
The most notable humanist during the Protestant Reformation was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469-1536), who had the largest audience among the movement. Consequently, it was through his influence that Luther's "95 Theses" found an immediate and receptive audience early in his critiques of the Church, and who would—until the Diet of Worms—remain a united voice behind Luther.
After the Diet of Worms, however, splits within the humanists, much like the cities, began to emerge. Many of the older generation sided with the Roman Church, like Erasmus, while the younger generation supported Luther, as seen in the case of Martin Bucer. While the Humanists were anti-scholastic, unlike Luther, they were not against monasticism or clericalism.
The interconnected nature of the universities helped spread the movements' ideas, and for Luther, the humanist movement was instrumental in gaining early support.
The Printing Press
What set the Protestants apart from other movements was the introduction of the Printing press. This was due to the rise of urbanisation and the need for written materials in universities, alongside an increase in literacy among artisan classes, a topic still debated by historians.
Luther regarded the Printing press as "God’s highest… act of grace, whereby the business of the Gospel is driven forward." One notable example was a Nuremberg priest who used it to distribute reading material, such as Peycht Spigel der Sunder, to address the spiritual needs of his parishioners.
The Protestants recognised the Printing press as a powerful tool for reaching the masses, enabling them to distribute broadsides and treatises quickly, cheaply, and without interference from the Roman Church. They also utilised vivid illustrations to depict Papal abuses and 'spiritual depravity' for the benefit of the illiterate.
Between 1517 and 1520, Luther sold over 300,000 copies of his publications, far surpassing the few hundred copies hand-printed by others. The Printing press allowed Protestants to reach a wider audience compared to earlier movements like the Lollards and Bohemian reformers, who relied mostly on verbal communication.
Efforts to suppress printed materials, such as in Strasbourg, had minimal impact overall. As Hamm noted, "Without the specifically urban culture, print and humanism…the reformation is unthinkable."
Therefore, the Printing press facilitated the rapid and extensive dissemination of Protestant works, a feat previous movements had not achieved.
Conclusion
In summary, this essay has aimed to demonstrate how the success of the Protestant Reformers was due to a complex interplay between political backing, urban development, academic culture, and the innovation of the printing press. These factors collectively facilitated the significant achievements of the Protestant Reformation.
The essay has explored the crucial role of political support in safeguarding the movement's leaders, particularly in the case of Luther. It has also highlighted the significance of urbanisation in fostering the political and cultural milieu that allowed the Protestant movement to thrive and expand. Furthermore, it has emphasized how universities in these urban centres promoted the dissemination and preservation of Protestant ideas.
Lastly, it has underscored the pivotal role of the printing press, a product of urbanisation, in enabling the widespread impact of the Reformation across Europe, surpassing that of other reform movements. Consequently, the essay illustrates why the Protestant Reformation was able to achieve such remarkable success.
Disclaimer: Artificial Intelligence (AI) software was used to assist in editing this essay. If you notice any errors, please notify the editorial team.
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